User:Reuqr/R-value (insulation)

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Aerogel is an extremely good thermal insulator, which at a presure of one-tenth of an atmosphere has an R-value of R-20 per inch of thickness,[1] compared to R-3.5/inch for a fiberglass blanket.[2]
Installed faced fiberglass batt insulation with its R-value visible (R-21)[3]

In building and construction,[4] the R-value is a measure of how well an object, per unit of its exposed area, resists conductive[5] flow of heat:[6] the greater the R-value, the greater the resistance, and so the better the thermal insulating properties of the object. R-values are used in describing effectiveness of insulation and in analysis of heat flow across assemblies (such as walls, roofs, and windows) under steady-state conditions.[6] Heat flow through an object is driven by temperature difference (e.g. ) between two sides of the object, and the R-value quantifies how effectively the object resists this drive:[7][8] divided by the R-value and then multiplied by the surface area of the object's side gives the total rate of heat flow through the object (as measured in Watts or in BTUs per hour). Moreover, as long as the materials involved are dense solids in direct mutual contact,[9] R-values are additive; for examle, the total R-value of an object composed of several layers of material is the sum of the R-values of the individual layers.[6][10] Note that the R-value is the building industry term[4] for what is in other contexts called ″thermal resistance per unit area.″[11] It is sometimes denoted RSI-value if the SI (metric) units are used.[12][13]

An R-value can be given for a material (e.g. for polyethylene foam), or for an assembly of materials (e.g. a wall or a window). In the case of materials, it is often expressed in terms of R-value per unit length (e.g. per inch of thickness). The latter can be misleading in the case of low-density building thermal insulations, for which R-values are not additive: their R-value per inch is not constant as the material gets thicker, but rather usually decreases.[9]

The units of an R-value (see below) are usually not explicitly stated, and so it is important to decide from context which units are being used: an R-value expressed in I-P (inch-pound) units[14] is about 5.68 times larger than when expressed in SI units,[15] so that, for example, a window that is R-2 in I-P units has an RSI of 0.35 (since 2/5.68=0.35). For R-values there is no difference between US customary units and imperial units. As far as how R-values are reported, all of the following mean the same thing: ″this is an R-2 window″;[16] ″this is an R2 window″;[17][12] ″this window has an R-value of 2″;[16] ″this is a window with R=2″[18] (and similarly with RSI-values, which also include the possibility ″this window provides RSI 0.35 of resistance to heat flow″[19][12]).

The more a material is intrinsically able to conduct heat, as given by its thermal conductivity, the lower its R-value. On the other hand, the thicker the material, the higher its R-value. Sometimes heat transfer processes other than conduction (namely, convection and radiation) significantly contribute to heat transfer within the material. In such cases, it is useful to introduce an ″apparent thermal conductivity″, which captures the effects of all three kinds of processes, and to define the R-value in general as .[6][11] This comes at a price, however: R-values that include non-conductive processes may no longer be additive and may have significant temperature dependence. In particular, for a loose or porous material, the R-value per inch generally depends on the thickness, almost always so that it decreases with increasing thickness[9] (polyisocyanurate (″polyso″) being an exception; its R-value/inch increases with thickness[20]). For similar reasons, the R-value per inch also depends on the temperature of the material, usually increasing with decreasing temperature (polyso again being an exception); a nominally R-13 fiberglass batt may be R-14 at -12° C (10° F) and R-12 at +43° C (110° F).[21] Nevertheless, in construction it is common to treat R-values as independent of temperature.[22] Note that an R-value never accounts for radiative or convective processes at the material's surface, which may be an important factor for some applications.

The R-value is the reciprocal of the thermal transmittance (U-factor) of a material or assembly. The U.S. construction industry preferes to use R-values, however, because they are additive and because bigger values mean better insulation, neither of which is true for U-factors.[4]

U-factor/U-value[edit]

See also: Thermal transmittance

The U-factor or U-value is the overall heat transfer coefficient that describes how well a building element conducts heat or the rate of transfer of heat (in watts) through one square metre of a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure.[23] The elements are commonly assemblies of many layers of components such as those that make up walls/floors/roofs etc. It measures the rate of heat transfer through a building element over a given area under standardised conditions. The usual standard is at a temperature gradient of 24 °C (75.2 °F), at 50% humidity with no wind[24] (a smaller U-factor is better at reducing heat transfer). It is expressed in watts per meter squared kelvin (W/m²K). This means that the higher the U-value the worse the thermal performance of the building envelope. A low U-value usually indicates high levels of insulation. They are useful as it is a way of predicting the composite behavior of an entire building element rather than relying on the properties of individual materials.

In most countries the properties of specific materials (such as insulation) are indicated by the thermal conductivity, sometimes called a k-value or lambda-value (lowercase λ). The thermal conductivity (k-value) is the ability of a material to conduct heat; hence, the lower the k-value, the better the material is for insulation. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) has a k-value of around 0.033 W/mK.[25] For comparison, phenolic foam insulation has a k-value of around 0.018 W/mK,[26] while wood varies anywhere from 0.15 to 0.75 W/mK, and steel has a k-value of approximately 50.0 W/mK. These figures vary from product to product, so the UK and EU have established a 90/90 standard which means that 90% of the product will conform to the stated k-value with a 90% confidence level so long as the figure quoted is stated as the 90/90 lambda-value.

U is the inverse of R[27] with SI units of W/(m2K) and U.S. units of BTU/(hr °F ft2);

where is the heat flux, is the tempreture difference across the material, k is the material's coefficient of thermal conductivity and L is its thickness. In some contexts, U is referred to as unit surface conductance.[28]

See also: tog (unit) or Thermal Overall Grade (where 1 tog = 0.1 m2·K/W), used for duvet rating.

Note that the term "U-factor" (which redirects here) is usually used in the U.S. and Canada to express the heat flow through entire assemblies (such as roofs, walls, and windows[29]). For example, energy codes such as ASHRAE 90.1 and the IECC prescribe U-values. However, R-value is widely used in practice to describe the thermal resistance of insulation products, layers, and most other parts of the building enclosure (walls, floors, roofs). Other areas of the world more commonly use U-value/U-factor for elements of the entire building enclosure including windows, doors, walls, roof, and ground slabs.[30]

Units: metric (SI) vs. inch-pound (I-P)[edit]

The SI (metric) unit of R-value is

square-metre kelvin per watt (m2·K/W or, equally, m2·°C/W),

whereas the I-P (inch-pound) unit is

square-foot·degree Fahrenheit·hour/British thermal unit (ft2·°F·h/BTU).[14]

For R-values there is no difference between US customary units and imperial units, so the same I-P unit is used in both.

Some sources use ″RSI″ when referring to R-values in SI units.[12][13]

R-values expressed in I-P units are approximately 5.68 times as large as R-values expressed in SI units.[15] For example, a window that is R-2 in the I-P system is about RSI 0.35, since 2/5.68 ≈ 0.35.

In countries where the SI system is generally in use, the R-values will also normally be given in SI units. This includes the U.K., Australia, and New Zealand.

I-P values are commonly given in the U.S. and Canada, though in Canada normally both I-P and RSI values are listed.[31]

Because the units are usually not explicitly stated, one must decide from context which units are being used. In this regard, it helps to keep in mind that I-P R-values are 5.68 times larger than the corresponding SI R-values.

More percisely,[32][33]

R-value (in I-P) = RSI-value (in SI) × 5.678263337
RSI-value (in SI) = R-value (in I-P) × 0.1761101838


References[edit]

  1. ^ Kahn, Jeffery (1991), Aerogel Research at LBL: From the Lab to the Marketplace, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, retrieved 5 February 2018
  2. ^ Lechner, Norbert (2015). Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 676. ISBN 978-1-118-58242-8.
  3. ^ U.S. Department of Energy, Faced fiberglass batt insulation can be stapled to the stud faces or slightly inset, but avoid compressing the batts, U.S. Department of Energy, retrieved 5 February 2018
  4. ^ a b c Ellis, Wayne (1988). "Appendix: Terminology update: Symbols mean specific terms". In Strehlow, Richard Alan (ed.). Standardization of Technical Terminology: Principles and Practices. Vol. Second. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM. p. 97. ISBN 0-8031-1183-5.
  5. ^ Rabl, Ari; Curtiss, Peter (2005). "9.6 Principles of Load Calculations". In Kreith, Frank; Goswami, D. Yogi (eds.). CRC Handbook of Mechanical Engineering (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0866-6.
  6. ^ a b c d Kośny, Jan; Yarbrough, David W. (2017). "4.10 Thermal Bridges in Building Structures". In Chhabra, Ray P. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Thermal Engineering (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1498715270.
  7. ^ Kreider, Jan F.; Curtiss, Peter S.; Rabl, Ari (2010). Heating and Cooling of Buildings: Design for Efficiency (Revised Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4398-8250-4.
  8. ^ Chen, C. Julian (2011). Physics of Solar Energy (Illustrated ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-470-64780-6.
  9. ^ a b c Krause, Carolyn (Summer 1980). "The Promise of Energy-Efficient Buildings". Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review. 13 (3): 6.
  10. ^ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (2013). "Heat, air, and moisture control in building assemblies—Fundamentals". 2013 ASHRAE Handbook. Vol. Fundamentals (SI ed.). Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. pp. 25.5–25.6. ISBN 978-1-936504-46-6.
  11. ^ a b Rathore, M. M.; Kapuno, R. (2011). Engineering Heat Transfer (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-7637-7752-4.
  12. ^ a b c d Fenna, Donald (2002). A Dictionary of Weights, Measures, and Units. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-860522-6.
  13. ^ a b Harvey, L. D. Danny (2006). A Handbook on Low-Energy Buildings and District-Energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. London, UK: Earthscan, an imprint of Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis. p. 39. ISBN 978-184407-243-9.
  14. ^ a b Lechner, Norbert (2015). Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 683–685. ISBN 978-1-118-58242-8.
  15. ^ a b Harvey, L. D. Danny (2006). A Handbook on Low-Energy Buildings and District-Energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. London, UK: Earthscan, an imprint of Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis. p. 40. ISBN 978-184407-243-9.
  16. ^ a b Lechner, Norbert (2015). Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 508. ISBN 978-1-118-58242-8.
  17. ^ Harvey, L. D. Danny (2006). A Handbook on Low-Energy Buildings and District-Energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. London, UK: Earthscan, an imprint of Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis. p. 40. ISBN 978-184407-243-9.
  18. ^ International Code Council (2010). Residential Code of New York State (2010 ed.). Washington, D.C.: International Code Council. ISBN 978-1609830014.
  19. ^ Harvey, L. D. Danny (2006). A Handbook on Low-Energy Buildings and District-Energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. London, UK: Earthscan, an imprint of Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis. p. 51. ISBN 978-184407-243-9.
  20. ^ The Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA), LTTR/QualityMark, The Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA), retrieved 5 February 2018
  21. ^ Bailes, Allison (24 April 2013), Big News: The R-Value of Insulation Is Not a Constant, Energy Vanguard, retrieved 5 February 2018
  22. ^ Building Science Corporation (23 January 2013), RR-0002: The Thermal Metric Project, Building Science Corporation, retrieved 5 February 2018
  23. ^ "U-Value Measurement Case Study". Retrieved 2014-10-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |offline= (help)
  24. ^ P2000 Insulation System, R-value Testing
  25. ^ Polystyrene insulation
  26. ^ European phenolic foam association: Properties of phenolic foam
  27. ^ "Indicators of Insulation Quality: U-value and R-value" (PDF). U-value and building physics. greenTEG. 2016-03-17. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
  28. ^ McQuiston, Faye C.; Parker, Jerald D.; Spitler, Jeffrey D. (2005). Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning: Analysis and Design (Sixth ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-47015-1.
  29. ^ "Efficient Windows Collaborative".
  30. ^ "Public Codes Cyberregs".
  31. ^ Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) (2018), Insulating Your House, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC), retrieved 5 February 2018
  32. ^ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (2013). "Units and Conversions". 2013 ASHRAE Handbook. Vol. Fundamentals (SI ed.). Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. p. 38.1. ISBN 978-1-936504-46-6.
  33. ^ Cardarelli, François (1999). Scientific Unit Conversion: A Practical Guide to Metrication (Second ed.). London, UK: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4471-0805-4.

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