User:Kharbaan Ghaltaan/sandbox2

Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein
President of Iraq
	In office; 1979–2003
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Jalal Talabani
Vice President
Deputy	Tariq Aziz

Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006), known as Saddam Hussein, was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the vice president of Iraq from 1968 to 1979 and as the country's fifth president from 1979 until his capture and overthrew in 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism.

Saddam was born in the village of Al-Awja, near Tikrit in northern Iraq, to a peasant Sunni Arab family. He joined the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1957, and the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party, and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. During his time as vice president, Saddam nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the 2nd Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975). Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population. Upon taking office, Saddam instituted the Ba'ath Party Purge. Saddam ordered the 1980 invasion of Iran in a purported effort to capture Iran's Arab-majority Khuzistan province and thwart Iranian attempts to export their own 1979 revolution. The Iran–Iraq War ended after nearly eight years in a ceasefire after a gruelling stalemate that cost somewhere aroIraq's prime ministerund a million lives and economic losses of $561 billion in Iraq.

Later, Saddam accused its ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraqi oil fields and occupied Kuwait, initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991). Iraq was defeated by a multinational coalition led by the United States. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. Saddam suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shia Muslims, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. Saddam's rule was marked by numerous human rights abuses, including an estimated 250,000 arbitrary deaths and disappearances. In 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq, falsely accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda. The Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, his trial took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shi'a and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed on 30 December 2006.

Saddam has been accused of running a repressive authoritarian government, which several analysts have described as totalitarian, although the applicability of that label has been contested. Contrasting Saddam is well regarded in the Arab and Muslim world, especially due his support for the Palestinian cause. Under Saddam, Iraq became an educational powerhouse in the Middle East. The government led by Saddam sought to make Iraq as stable country. He provided free healthcare and education to citizens of Iraq. The Ba'athist government was secular and provided protection to country's Christians, Yazidis and Jews. Saddam also donated huge amount to charities in America and Europe. For improving quality of life in Iraq, Saddam was awarded by UNESCO.

Early life[edit]

Saddam Hussein was born in al-Awja, a small village near Tikrit to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They both were from the Albu Nasir tribe, a tribe that had descended from Ahmed Bin Hussein 'Nasiruddin' who was a descendant of Imam Hussein Bin Ali. The Albu Nasir tribe had settled in Tikrit after migrating from Yemen.^[1]^[2] Saddam's brother and father both died of cancer before his birth. These deaths made Saddam's mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide. His mother was saved by a neighboring Jewish family.^[3] Subha "would have nothing to do with him," and Saddam would eventually be taken in by an uncle.^[4]

His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the CIA) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up.^[5]^[6] At around the age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Khairallah Talfah, who became a fatherly figure to Saddam.^[7] Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom, which remained a major colonial power in the region.^[8] Talfah was later appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office.^[7]

Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party, of which his uncle was a supporter.

Revolutionary activism: 1957—1968[edit]

Entry to politics[edit]

Saddam dropped at the age of 20 and joined Ba'ath Party. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher.^[9] Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and the Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle.^[7]

Saddam Hussein and the Ba'ath Party student cell, Cairo, in the period 1959–1963

Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists).^[10] Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya.

Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956, modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically.^[11] His father-in-law, Khairallah Talfah, was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état and Anglo-Iraqi War, and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam.^[6] Iraq was under monarchy rule, known as Kingdom of Iraq. In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution.

Rise to power[edit]

The Ba'ath Party was originally represented in Qasim's cabinet; however, Qasim—reluctant to join Nasser's newly formed union between Egypt and Syria—sided with various groups within Iraq (notably the social democrats and the Iraqi Communist Party) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead, Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First".^[12]^[13] To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim also had an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party, which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism.^[14] His policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to assassinate Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. Saddam was recruited to the assassination conspiracy by its ring-leader, Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly, after one of the would-be assassins left.^[15] During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed Qasim and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived.^[15] Saddam himself is not believed to have received any training outside of Iraq, as he was a late addition to the assassination team.^[16]

Richard Sale of United Press International (UPI), citing former U.S. diplomat and intelligence officials, Adel Darwish, and other experts, reported that the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qasim was a collaboration between the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Egyptian intelligence.^[17] Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability."^[18] It is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity, was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level."^[19] Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy."^[20] On the other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq."^[19]

At the time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had fewer than 1,000 members,^[21] however the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as president of Iraq.^[19]^[22] Kanan Makiya recounts:

The man and the myth merge in this episode. His biography—and Iraqi television, which stages the story ad nauseam—tells of his familiarity with guns from the age of ten; his fearlessness and loyalty to the party during the 1959 operation; his bravery in saving his comrades by commandeering a car at gunpoint; the bullet that was gouged out of his flesh under his direction in hiding; the iron discipline that led him to draw a gun on weaker comrades who would have dropped off a seriously wounded member of the hit team at a hospital; the calculating shrewdness that helped him save himself minutes before the police broke in leaving his wounded comrades behind; and finally the long trek of a wounded man from house to house, city to town, across the desert to refuge in Syria.^[23]

Michel Aflaq, the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organized the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi, on the grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one of them being Saddam.^[24] The assassins, including Saddam, all eventually escaped to Cairo, Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for the remainder of Qasim's tenure in power."^[25] Saddam initially escaped to Syria and then to Egypt itself in February 1960, and he continued to live there until 1963, graduating from high school in 1961 and unsuccessfully pursuing a law degree^[26] at Cairo Law School (1962–1963).^[27] It is possible that Saddam visited the U.S. embassy in Cairo during his exile,^[28] and some evidence suggests that he was "in frequent contact with US officials and intelligence agents."^[19] A former high-ranking U.S. official told historians Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett that Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, "had made contact with the American authorities in the late 1950s and early 1960s."^[29]

Ramadan Revolution[edit]

Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA,^[30]^[31] however pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government,^[32]^[33] although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after the coup.^[34]^[35] Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état. Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within the Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return.^[36]

Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966.^[37] In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party.^[38] He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought.^[39] In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of the Ba'ath Party in response to the Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two separate factions.^[40] Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled.^[41]

Overthrew of Arif[edit]

In July 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr that overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif,^[42]^: 174 Salam Arif's brother and successor. While Saddam's role in the coup was not hugely significant (except in the official account), Saddam planned and carried out the subsequent purge of the non-Ba'athist faction led by Prime Minister Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif, whose support had been essential to the coup's success.^[43] According to a semi-official biography, Saddam personally led Naif at gunpoint to the plane that escorted him out of Iraq.^[44] Arif was given refuge in London and then Istanbul. Al-Bakr was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council. According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam clearly had become the moving force behind the party.

Vice Presidency: 1968—1979[edit]

Economic boom[edit]

Within just a few years, Iraq was providing social services that were unprecedented among Middle Eastern countries.^[45] Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program.^[46]^[47] The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers.^[48]^[49] Iraq created one of the most modernized public-health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from the UNESCO.

With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy.^[50] Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries.^[51] The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries.^[52] Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas.^[53] Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants.^[54] This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion.^[54] He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans.^[54]

Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas.^[54] After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers.^[54] The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975.^[54] Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam.^[54] The state-owned banks were put under his thumb.^[54] Lending was based on cronyism.^[54]

Foreign relations[edit]

In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.

Peace treaty with Iran[edit]

A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975. Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions. The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on March 6, 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations. The agreement was mediated by the then-President of Algeria, Houari Boumediene. Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries. Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator.

The Algiers Agreement was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes. The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint. Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control. Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq.

Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression. The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including the exchange of ambassadors. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects. The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party. As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played a pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests. Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process. Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough. The Algiers Agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects. This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam Hussein's early political career.

Presidency: 1979—2003[edit]

Domestic policy[edit]

Iraq under Saddam was a relatively prosperous, secular society. It had the highest number of female university graduates in the Middle East, and the highest percentage of paved roads. From beginning of his vice presidency itself, Iraq began emerging as a powerful and rich country in the Middle East and the Arab world. Infrastructure development continued in Iraq, with construction of roads, bridges and other transport facilities.^[55]^[56] Saddam built various palaces across the country for his personal use, which later became a popular tourist spot after his fall.^[57] Iraq became a powerful country with a well-equipped army.^[58]

The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the People's Army, which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Saddam's younger half-brother, commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents.

Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents.

An Iraqi man, while speaking to Al Jazeera Media Network, recorded saying: “Iraq under Saddam had global influence, a developed economy, strong dinar [local currency], welfare, housing, health, education, bridges, roads, dams, airports, self-sufficiency and a respected passport,” said Tawfiq. “Iraqis remember that and wish to go back”.^[59] The Iran—Iraq war delayed the opening of Baghdad Airport. However in 1981, the airport for Baghdad was opened, which was named as "Saddam International Airport". It became the largest airport in the country. In 1987, the Iraqi Revolution Command Council passed a resolution ordered by Saddam, which established four universities; the University of Al-Qadisiyah, the University of Kufa, the University of Tikrit, and the University of Anbar.

Saddam Hussein led a massive construction of Babylon, which promoted tourism.^[60] Following invasion of Kuwait and initiating the Gulf War, Iraq was sanctioned by the UN, which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme, in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996. By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$9 billion from US$44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq improved in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$23.73 billion by 2000

Saddam Hussein also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.^{[citation needed]}

Freedom of Religion[edit]

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully.^[61] The Ba'athist government led by Saddam Hussein was a secular based.^[62] His government was noted for granting freedom of worship to all religions.^[63] In the Persian Gulf, Iraq was the only secular country and granted freedom of worship to people of all religions.^[64] Involvement of Iraq in wars during Saddam caused persecution of these community, specially during the Iraq War, many of the Christians and Jews of Iraq fled.^[65] Saddam led a secular progressive regime that kept the Wahhabi and Salafi extremist ideology of Al-Qaeda from taking root in the country.^[66] The country was free of any sectarian violence or civil disorder.^[67] The Ba'athist ideology followed by Saddam, was founded by Michel Aflaq, who was a Syrian Christian.^[68]

During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape.^[69]^[70]^[71] Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government, a friend of him and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein.^[72] Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^[73] After fall of his government in 2003, Christians in Iraq faced persecution.^[74]

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the Jews were treated fairly.^[75]^[76] They were among the various religious minority groups in the country and had the freedom to practice their religion.^[77]^[78]^[79] The Iraqi government even helped restore the Meir Taweig Synagogue about ten years before he was ousted.^[80] An incident took place on 4 October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, killing four people including two Jews.^[81] Following the arrest of Palestinian perpetrator, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice.^[82] As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident.^[82] The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis that should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries.^[83] Ezekiel's Tomb, a Jewish site was protected by Ba'ath security forces.^[84]

Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988[edit]

In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his Pahlavi dynasty was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.^[85]^[86] This led to the establishment of an Islamic republic and the spread of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam, which worried Saddam Hussein in Iraq. Only a few years ago, a dispute with Iran was solved by an agreement. Saddam feared that radical Islamic ideas—hostile to his secular rule—were rapidly spreading inside his country among the majority Shi'ite population. As that time Iraq, other than Muslims, was also home to many Christians, Yazidis and minority of Jews. The Ba'ath Party led by Saddam was a secular party.

Saddam and Khomeini had a longstanding rivalry, and Khomeini's presence in Iraq fueled tensions.^[87] When Khomeini began encouraging Iraqi Shi'ites to overthrow Saddam, Saddam expelled him to France.^[88] However, after Khomeini gained power in Iran, skirmishes over the Shatt al-Arab waterway led to increased tensions between Iraq and Iran. Despite publicly advocating for peaceful relations, Saddam privately revealed his intention to invade and occupy a significant part of Iran. He also sought support from the US and Western nations to topple the Islamic government in Iran.

In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, starting with an attack on Tehran's Mehrabad Airport and the seizure of Khuzestan, an oil-rich region declared as a new province of Iraq.^[89] Supported by Arab states, the US, and Europe, Saddam Hussein positioned himself as the defender of the Arab world against revolutionary Iran.^[90] Despite international law violations and the use of chemical warfare, Iraq received economic and military support.^[91] Initially, Iraq made gains but faced losses from Iran's human wave attacks. In 1982, Iraq found itself on the defensive and sought ways to end the war. Amid discussions, Saddam considered stepping down temporarily, but later sacked and arrested Health Minister Dr. Riyadh Ibrahim, who had suggested the idea. Gruesomely, pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife.

During the Iraq-Iran war, Iraq faced a prolonged and destructive war of attrition. They used chemical weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces, utilizing materials and technology supplied by Western companies. The US provided satellite photos and removed Iraq from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, aiming to support Iraq's war efforts. The Soviet Union, France, and China were major arms suppliers to Iraq. Saddam sought financial and political support from other Arab governments due to damage to Iraq's oil industry.

The war persisted despite calls for a ceasefire by the UN Security Council, and it finally ended on August 20, 1988. The eight-year war between Iraq and Iran ended in a stalemate, with estimates of casualties ranging from 1 to 2 million. Both sides suffered significant losses, but Iran's were greater. The war left the southern oil-rich region in ruins and the borders largely unchanged. Saddam Hussein borrowed billions of dollars from Arab states and other sources to fund the war, but this strategy backfired, as it boosted Islamic radicalism and created tensions within Iraq. After the war, Saddam sought funds for postwar reconstruction.

1982 Assassination attempt[edit]

In July 1982, a group of Shiite militants attempted to assassinate Saddam Hussein during a visit to the town of Dujail.^[92] The attack, which involved gunfire aimed at Saddam's motorcade, failed to kill him but resulted in the death of several members of his security detail.^[93] In response to the assassination attempt, Saddam launched a campaign of brutal retribution against the residents of Dujail.^[94] The town was subjected to a period of intense repression and violence as the regime sought to quash any dissent and deter future challenges to Saddam's rule.^[95] The Iraqi security forces, under the command of Saddam's regime, conducted mass arrests in Dujail following the failed assassination attempt.^[96] Those suspected of involvement or having any connection to the attack were targeted, as well as their families.^[97] Many detainees were subjected to severe torture, including beatings, electric shocks, and other forms of physical and psychological abuse.^[98] To extract confessions, detainees in Dujail were subjected to extreme torture methods.^[99] These included hanging by the limbs, burning with hot irons, and being submerged in sewage water.^[100] Many detainees, under duress, confessed to crimes they did not commit.

Saddam Hussein personally oversaw the proceedings of the Revolutionary Court established to try those accused in the Dujail case.^[101] The court operated without regard for due process, fair trial standards, or the presumption of innocence.^[102] Defendants were denied legal representation, and the court relied heavily on coerced confessions as evidence.^[103] In the aftermath of the trials, the Revolutionary Court handed down a series of harsh sentences, including death penalties.^[104] In total, over 140 individuals were executed in relation to the Dujail massacre.^[105] Some of those executed were as young as 11 years old. The retribution extended beyond those directly involved in the assassination attempt.^[105] The regime implemented a policy of collective punishment, targeting entire families and displacing them from their homes.^[105] Many properties were destroyed or confiscated, and families were forced to live in exile or in dire conditions.^[105] The Dujail massacre had a devastating impact on the town and its residents.^[106] Many families were left without their breadwinners, and the community was subjected to ongoing surveillance and repression by the regime's security apparatus.^[106]

The international community strongly condemned the Dujail massacre and the human rights abuses committed by Saddam Hussein's regime.^[106] Organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch documented the atrocities and called for justice.^[106] The legacy of the Dujail massacre continued to haunt the survivors and the wider community.^[106] The physical and psychological trauma inflicted on the victims, as well as the loss of loved ones, had long-lasting effects on their lives and well-being.^[106] Following the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, in 2006, he faced trial in Iraq for crimes against humanity, including the massacre and sentenced to death.^[106]

Repression of Kurdish: 1986–1989[edit]

The Anfal campaign, led by the government of Saddam Hussein and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid, was a genocidal campaign conducted during the Iran-Iraq War against the Kurdish people and various other ethnic groups in the Kurdish regions of Iraq.^[107] The campaign, which took place between 1986 and 1989, derived its name from Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks.^[108]

The primary targets of the Anfal campaign were the peshmerga rebels and the predominantly Kurdish civilian population residing in rural areas of Northern Iraq.^[109] However, the campaign also targeted other ethnic groups such as the Shabaks, Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people, and Mandaeans.^[110]^[111]^[112] Many villages belonging to these groups were destroyed, and they suffered significant casualties and displacement as a result.^[113] The death toll from the Anfal campaign remains a subject of debate.^[114] Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed, while some Kurdish sources suggest that the number may be higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds lost their lives during the campaign.^[115] The atrocities committed during the Anfal campaign included mass executions, forced disappearances, torture, and the use of chemical weapons.

One of the most notorious incidents associated with the Anfal campaign is the Halabja massacre.^[116] On 16 March 1988, the city of Halabja, predominantly inhabited by Kurds, was subjected to a devastating chemical attack.^[117]^[118]^[119] The Iraqi forces utilized a combination of mustard gas and nerve agents, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 3,200 to 5,000 people and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, mostly civilians.^[120] The attack was part of the broader Anfal campaign and aimed to reassert central control over the Kurdish population and defeat the Kurdish peshmerga forces.^[121]^[122]^[123] In the aftermath of the Halabja massacre, there were conflicting narratives regarding responsibility.^[124] The U.S. State Department initially held the position that Iran was partially to blame for the attack.^[125] A study by the Defense Intelligence Agency also attributed responsibility to Iran. However, it is widely accepted today that Iraq was the perpetrator of the Halabja massacre. This assessment was subsequently used by the Central Intelligence Agency for much of the early 1990s.^[126] Despite this, few observers today doubt that it was Iraq that executed the Halabja massacre.^[127]

After capture, when Saddam and his people were on trial, they denied that they were intended to target Kurdish civilians.^[128] During Saddam Hussein's trial for the Anfal campaign, two co-defendants, Sultan Hashim al-Tai and Sabir al-Douri, presented their explanations to the court.^[128] They argued that the Iraqi military did not intentionally target Kurdish civilians but instead focused on Iranian troops and Kurdish rebels who were fighting alongside them.^[128] Al-Tai, the commander of the Anfal task force, emphasized that their objective was to combat an organized armed army, not civilians.^[128] Al-Douri, the director of military intelligence, claimed that their actions were necessary to clear northern Iraq of Iranian troops and to protect Baghdad from potential flooding if nearby dams were destroyed.^[128] Both defendants asserted that civilians in the Anfal region had been relocated to safe areas, including the city of Kirkuk.^[128] They maintained that they acted in defense of their country and denied any guilt, stating that they implemented their orders precisely and sincerely without turning a blind eye to any violations.^[128]

Tensions with Kuwait: 1988–1990[edit]

The end of the war with Iran heightened tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. Saddam demanded that Kuwait waive Iraq's $30 billion war debt, but they refused.^[129] Disputes over oil production and prices further strained relations, as Kuwait refused to cut production, keeping prices low while Iraq needed high prices to repay its debt.^[130] Saddam claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraq, fueling nationalist sentiments.^[131] The significant oil reserves in both countries added to the tensions.^[132] Saddam deployed troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border.^[133]

As tensions escalated between Iraq and Kuwait, Saddam Hussein received conflicting information about how the US would respond to a potential invasion.^[134] The US had previously cultivated a relationship with Iraq, providing significant assistance, including financial aid.^[135] In April 1990, Saddam threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel if it took action against Iraq.^[136] He also criticized US support for Israel and warned against policies that undermined Arab interests.^[137] In response, the US deployed warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf.^[138]

During an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, between the US ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, and Saddam Hussein, tensions were high.^[139] Saddam criticized American policy towards Kuwait and the UAE, expressing concerns about their disregard for Iraq's rights.^[140] He also warned that Iraq could cause harm if pressured. Glaspie, in response, acknowledged Iraq's need for funds and expressed a lack of opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts.^[141] However, she expressed concern about Iraq's deployment of troops and perceived aggression towards Kuwait.^[142]^[143] Saddam mentioned attempting negotiations with Kuwait but emphasized that Iraq would not accept defeat.^[144]

US officials tried to maintain a conciliatory approach with Iraq, expressing a desire to avoid the use of force but refraining from taking a position on the Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute. However, Saddam Hussein's troops invaded Kuwait after failed negotiations. As tensions escalated, the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with Saddam, providing military advisers, arms, and aid.

Gulf War: 1990–1991[edit]

On August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, sparking an international crisis.^[145] He initially claimed assistance to "Kuwaiti revolutionaries".^[146] On August 4, an Iraqi-backed "the Provisional Government of Free Kuwait" was proclaimed, but lacked legitimacy and support.^[147] This led to an announcement of a "merger" between the two countries on August 8.^[148] Kuwait formally became the 19th Governorate of Iraq on August 28, following the invasion. Saddam's actions occurred just two years after the 1988 Iraq and Iran truce.^[149] He overran Kuwait, confronting his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam.^[150] When asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed it was Iraq's rightful 19th province. Later, he stated, "When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am".^[151] Saddam had the means to pursue military aggression due to the funds poured into Iraq by Kuwait and the Gulf states. He also had access to weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France.^[152]

In addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between the Kuwaiti emir and the Iraqi foreign minister played a decisive role in triggering the invasion.^[153] Saddam claimed that the emir stated his intention to ruin Iraq financially, turning "every Iraqi woman into a $10 prostitute".^[154] Before the invasion, Saddam shipped 100 new Mercedes 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan.^[155] He reportedly offered Egypt's President Hosni Mubarak 50 million dollars in cash, ostensibly for grain, just two days before the attacks.^[156] US President George H. W. Bush responded cautiously initially, considering Kuwait's previous hostility towards Israel and its friendly relations with the Soviets.^[157]^[158] However, concerns about stability in the region, the world economy, and British interests influenced his stance.^[159] Cooperation between the US and the Soviet Union led to the passage of UN resolutions setting a deadline for Iraq to leave Kuwait.^[160] The fear of Iraqi retaliation against Saudi Arabia, a key US ally, prompted a deployment of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq.^[161] During the invasion, Saddam's officers looted Kuwait, even taking the marble from its palaces for Saddam's personal use.^[162] In 1991, Saddam ordered firing of scud missiles towards Israel. Later Saddam agreed to pay US$74 million in compensate to Israel, which was borrowed from the amount of oil-for-food program. During the war, missiles were also fired in cities of Saudi Arabia.

Saddam Hussein ignored the Security Council deadline, leading to a US-led coalition launching missile and aerial attacks on Iraq starting on January 16, 1991.^[163] Israel refrained from retaliating to maintain the coalition.^[164] The coalition's ground forces, primarily US and British divisions, expelled Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied southern Iraq.^[165] On March 6, 1991, President Bush announced the vision of a "new world order" where diverse nations unite for peace, security, freedom, and the rule of law.^[166] The Iraqi army was unable to match the coalition's superior forces and air support. Thousands of Iraqis were taken prisoner, and casualties exceeded 85,000. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to dismantle chemical and biological weapons and allow UN inspections. Trade sanctions remained until Iraq fully complied. Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.^[167]

1991 Uprisings[edit]

Sanctions on Iraq: 1990–2000[edit]

Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, the United Nations Security Council imposed comprehensive sanctions on Iraq through Resolution 661.^[168] The sanctions aimed to pressure Iraq into withdrawing from Kuwait and complying with UN resolutions regarding disarmament and international law. Saddam faced international condemnation and isolation due to his aggressive actions. The sanctions sought to weaken his regime and force compliance with the UN's demands. The sanctions included a trade embargo that restricted Iraq's ability to import and export goods, severely impacting the country's economy and infrastructure. However, Saddam managed to exploit loopholes and illicit channels to mitigate the impact on his inner circle and maintain a degree of control.

Despite the economic hardships faced by the Iraqi population under the sanctions, Saddam Hussein prioritized the survival of the ruling elite and the maintenance of his grip on power. Resources were diverted to sustain military capabilities and fund loyalist networks. He utilized a system of patronage and favoritism, ensuring that those loyal to his government received essential goods, services, and privileges. This allowed him to consolidate power and maintain support among key factions.

The Oil-for-Food program, initiated in 1995, aimed to provide humanitarian relief by allowing Iraq to sell limited quantities of oil in exchange for essential goods. However, Saddam Hussein manipulated the program to generate revenue and exploit kickbacks, bypassing the intended humanitarian purposes. The sanctions and the resulting economic hardships contributed to a rise in black market activities and smuggling networks, which Saddam Hussein exploited to his advantage. He controlled and profited from such illicit trade, further consolidating his power.

Tensions with the U.S[edit]

Improvement of Iraq: 2000—2003[edit]

The international community imposed sanctions on Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait. Oil-for-Food Programme maintained Iraq's strong trade relations with India. Healthcare and economy after the 1990–1991 war remained decline in Iraq, but the education sector was still developed. Iraq suffered huge loses aftermath of the war. The GDP of the country dropped and went down.

Foreign policy[edit]

Egypt's relations with Iraq deteriorated, after Anwar Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab league summit which condemned the Camp David Accords and suspended Egypt's membership from the Arab League.

Vietnam War[edit]

Saddam Hussein developed strong relations with Vietnam. During the era of Cold War, the Vietnam War was a major conflict from 1955 to 1975. Not only did he provide assistance, loans and oil but he didn't demand any payment in return for it and even erased all debts that Vietnam owed.

Views on Israel and Palestine[edit]

2001 attacks in the United States[edit]

Vice Presidency: 1968—1979[edit]

Kurdish Agreement[edit]

The Kurdish Agreement of 1970, also known as the March Manifesto, was an important political agreement reached between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups led by Mustafa Barzani. The agreement aimed to address the longstanding grievances of the Kurdish population in Iraq, particularly regarding autonomy and political representation.

During the negotiations and implementation of the Kurdish Agreement, Saddam Hussein was a key figure in the Iraqi government. Saddam Hussein played a significant role in the negotiations between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish rebel groups. He represented the government's interests and worked towards finding a resolution to the Kurdish insurgency that had been ongoing since the 1960s.

The Kurdish Agreement granted a degree of autonomy to the Kurdish region in northern Iraq, known as Iraqi Kurdistan. It included provisions for the recognition of Kurdish language and culture, the incorporation of Kurdish political representation within the Iraqi government, and the establishment of a Kurdish regional administration.

Despite the initial optimism surrounding the Kurdish Agreement, its implementation faced significant challenges. Disputes arose over issues such as the distribution of power, revenue sharing, and the demarcation of the autonomous Kurdish region. These challenges strained the relationship between the Iraqi government and Kurdish authorities and eventually led to the collapse of the agreement in 1974. The breakdown of the Kurdish Agreement resulted in a renewed armed conflict between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. The conflict continued until a ceasefire was established in 1975, but tensions between the Iraqi government and Kurdish groups persisted for many years.

Yom Kippur War[edit]

Saddam Hussein played a significant role in supporting Egypt and Syria, who were the main Arab belligerents in the war against Israel.^[169] He provided both political and military assistance to these countries during the conflict.^[170] Iraq provided financial assistance to support the war efforts of Egypt and Syria.^[171] The exact amount of financial aid is not widely documented, but it aimed to assist with the procurement of military equipment and other necessities for the Arab armies.^[172]

On the military front, Iraq sent a contingent of troops and military equipment to support Syria. The Iraqi forces fought alongside Syrian forces in the Golan Heights against Israeli forces.^[173] Saddam Hussein's decision to send troops was driven by his desire to position Iraq as a leading Arab nation and bolster his own standing within the Arab world.^[174] Around 18,000 men and several hundred tanks from Iraq was deployed in the central Golan.^[175]

Iraq participated in the 1973 oil embargo, also known as the Arab oil embargo.^[176] The embargo was a response by several Arab oil-producing countries to the United States' support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War, which was fought between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria.^[177] The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), which included Iraq, decided to impose an oil embargo on countries that supported Israel.^[178] The embargo aimed to exert economic and political pressure on those countries by reducing or completely stopping the supply of oil.^[179]

Iraq, along with other OAPEC members such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, implemented the oil embargo.^[180]^[181] As a major oil producer, Iraq's participation in the embargo had a significant impact on global oil markets.^[182] The reduced oil supply resulted in a sharp increase in oil prices and created economic challenges for countries heavily dependent on oil imports and increased worth of Iraq and other Arab countries.^[183] The 1973 oil crises changed the landscape of oil industry in the Arab world and the Middle East forever. After 1973 oil crisis, France followed pro-Arab foreign policy and developed a strong relation with the Arab world, specially Iraq. Saddam regime developed a strong relation with France. Since then, France is closest ally of Iraq among the European countries.

Kurdish War[edit]

The Iraqi government, led by President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his deputy, Saddam Hussein, agreed to a peace treaty with the Kurdish rebels in 1970. The treaty, known as the March Manifesto, promised limited autonomy for the Kurds in exchange for their disarmament. However, tensions persisted between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish groups, particularly the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. Disputes over the implementation of the March Manifesto, control of oil-rich territories, and political power-sharing led to a breakdown of the agreement. At the same time, the Ba'athist government began an Arabization program in oil rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin.

In 1974, the Iraqi government launched a military offensive against the KDP-controlled areas in northern Iraq. The government forces, backed by heavy artillery and air power, aimed to suppress the Kurdish resistance and regain control over the region. The Kurdish insurgents, including the Peshmerga fighters, engaged in guerrilla warfare tactics and fought to defend their territories. The conflict escalated with both sides committing human rights abuses and atrocities against civilians. The Iraqi government used scorched-earth tactics, including the destruction of villages and displacement of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Chemical weapons were also reportedly used by the government forces during the conflict.

The war attracted international attention, with neighboring countries and major powers becoming involved. Iran, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, supported the Kurdish insurgents as part of its regional ambitions and to exert pressure on the Iraqi government. The Shah provided military aid and a safe haven for the Kurdish leadership. The Second Iraqi-Kurdish War had a significant impact on the Kurdish population and the political landscape of Iraq. It further deepened mistrust between the Kurdish people and the Iraqi government, laying the groundwork for future conflicts and aspirations for an independent Kurdish state.

Shatt al-Arab[edit]

The Shatt al-Arab is a river that forms the boundary between Iraq and Iran.^[184] The dispute over the waterway began before Saddam Hussein's vice presidency during the time of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran.^[185] Shatt al-Arab is considered as an important channel for oil exports for both Iraq and Iran.^[186] In 1937, Iran and the newly independent Iraq signed a treaty to settle the dispute.^[187] During this period, Saddam Hussein was involved in negotiations and discussions related to the Shatt al-Arab dispute.^[188] The Iraqi government, under his leadership, maintained a firm stance on Iraq's territorial claims over the waterway.^[189]

The Iraqi government insisted on the implementation of the 1937 Algiers Agreement as the basis for resolving the dispute.^[190] The Algiers Agreement had established the border between Iran and Iraq along the Shatt al-Arab.^[191] However, the Shah of Iran abrogated the agreement in 1969, claiming the entire waterway should be under Iranian control.^[192]^[193] Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi government opposed the Shah's unilateral abrogation of the Algiers Agreement and sought to assert Iraq's rights over the Shatt al-Arab.^[194]^[195] They advocated for the restoration of the agreement and the recognition of Iraq's sovereignty over the waterway.^[196]

In 1969, Saddam stated "Iraq's dispute with Iran is in connection with Khuzestan, which is part of Iraq's soil and was annexed to Iran during foreign rule".^[197]^[198] Efforts were made to resolve the dispute diplomatically between Iraq and Iran during this period, but a permanent resolution was not achieved.^[199] Tensions continued to escalate, leading to increased military clashes and eventually the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War in 1980. The Algiers Accord, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975.^[200] Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions.