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Eastern Ethics in Business[edit]
In the business realm, decisions made by businessmen and women can be associated with their ethical stance. This ethical standard can sometimes be attributed to their cultural background or upbringing. Across the Eastern and Oriental region, differing ethics arise from historic philosophies, religions or way of thinking and define commercial decisions.
Chinese Ethics[edit]
Confucian[edit]
Confucianism originates from China and details the social values, institutions, rituals, virtues and transcendental ideals. Confucian ethics develops the personal characters and virtues of benevolence, ritual propriety, righteousness, wisdom and integrity.[1] These teachings were developed by Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and overlap with commercial activity and relations.
Classical Confucians[edit]
Benevolence (or Ren) is a Confucian ethic that necessitates a person to uphold this characteristic within a business or non-business interaction which mirrors the historic expectation of rulers demonstrating benevolence.[2] Mencius stated that “What is the point of mentioning the word ‘profit’? All that matters is that there should be benevolence and rightness” which entails that profit in business is reasonable if delivered through benevolence and rightness.[3] Business practices are also considered to be carried out with sincerity as indicated by the Analects. On a government level, benevolence is expected to ensure welfare and responsibilities are fulfilled with moral leadership.[4]
Neo-Confucians[edit]
Neo-Confucian considers an approach based on speculative metaphysical truth combined with personal self-cultivation in social ethics.[2] Here, profits, wealth, position and selfish desires are intolerable when engaging in commercial activity as these human desires override the moral principle of what the “body and mind naturally possess” on its own and was taught by Zhu Xi during the Song Dynasty.[5]
Under the Ming dynasty, Wang Yangming had a different approach to Neo-Confucian ethics in commercial activity after Zhu’s approach. This idealises on “uniting thought and action”, detailing that people should act in accordance to Heaven and Earth.[6]
Middle Eastern Ethics[edit]
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Islam[edit]
In the Middle East, Islam is the most dominant religion in this region as 62% Muslims globally live here, and provides an ethical structure for commercial conduct and practices for people.[7] All commercial conduct and practices undertaken by an individual is associated with worshipping Allah. Virtuous or vicious conduct is judged under the Quran and Sunnah from the Hadith.
In Islamic culture, Muslims are expected to adhere to the five pillars of Islam and Islamic Code of Ethics and thereby acting in accordance to what is considered halal, not haram.[8] A businessman is expected to act in an ethical manner with Allah at the foremost intention and then ethically with other businessmen. Islamic ethics dictate abstinence from corruption, misuse of power and fraud, whilst simultaneously encouraging efficiency, integrity, collaboration and respect amongst employees.[9] This all falling under the indivisible concept of oneness, called Tawhid, which details the importance between an individual and their god, other individuals and their environment.[10]
Considering the legal landscape, Islam still remains a part in the written laws and underpins the ongoing commercial and trading practices.[11] The Sharia once formulated a significant part of the written law in Muslim countries, however, since the 19th Century, numerous countries have become influenced by Western colonial powers and have seen a mix between Western Laws integrating with Sharia Law.[12] These countries include Pakistan, Israel and Egypt whilst Turkey has adopted a more secular legal system. In the 20th Century, the Sharia has become more adaptive to modern circumstances and still preserves the ethical foundations of Islam. This is seen particularly in Iran and Saudi Arabia which have traditionally upheld a Classical Sharia.[13]
Indian Ethics[edit]
Buddhism[edit]
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The teachings of Buddha centralise on how an individual is able to obtain a better life and to ultimately reach Nirvana, meaning no more suffering.
- ^ Berling, Judith. "Confucianism". Center for Global Education. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ a b Kit-Chun, J (2002). "Confucian Business Ethics and the Economy".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Taylor, Rodney L. (1990). The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 17. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ Kit-Chun, J (2002). "Confucian Business Ethics and the Economy".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Gardner, Daniel (trans.), 1990, Learning to Be a Sage: Selections from the Conversations of Master Chu, Arranged Topically, Berkeley: University of California Press.
- ^ Chan, W. (1963). Instructions for Practical Living, and other Neo-Confucian Writings. New York and London: Colombia University Press.
- ^ Pew Research Center. (2017). World’s Muslim Population More Widespread Than You Might Think. Retrieved March 12, 2019, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/31/worlds-muslim-population-more-widespread-than-you-might-think/
- ^ Samir, A. A. (2009). Business ethics in islam: The glaring gap in practice. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 2(4), 278-288. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/10.1108/17538390911006340
- ^ Samir, A. A. (2009). Business ethics in islam: The glaring gap in practice. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 2(4), 278-288.
- ^ Alhabshi, S.O. (1993), "Management ethics from Islamic perspective", Proceedings: Arab Management Conference, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK.
- ^ Mullin Marta, J.,K., Singhapakdi, A., Attia, A., & Vitell, S. J. (2004). Some important factors underlying ethical decisions of middle-eastern marketers. International Marketing Review, 21(1), 53-67.
- ^ The Origins of Islamic Law. (2019). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from http://www.crf-usa.org/america-responds-to-terrorism/the-origins-of-islamic-law.html
- ^ The Origins of Islamic Law. (2019). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from http://www.crf-usa.org/america-responds-to-terrorism/the-origins-of-islamic-law.html