Domestic rabbit

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This article is about the domesticated form of the European rabbit. For the wild variety, see European rabbit. For all rabbit species, see Rabbit.

Domestic rabbit
Domesticated
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Genus: Oryctolagus
Species:
O. cuniculus
Subspecies:
O. c. subsp. domesticus
Trinomial name
Oryctolagus cuniculus subsp. domesticus
A pet rabbit stretched out on the carpet. This behavior is sometimes called a "sploot".

The domestic rabbit is the domesticated form of the European rabbit, a member of the lagomorph order. A male rabbit is known as a buck, a female is a doe, and a young rabbit is a kit. There are hundreds of rabbit breeds, originating from all over the world.

Rabbits were first domesticated and used for their food and fur by the Romans.[1] Rabbits may be housed inside, but the idea of the domestic rabbit as a house companion, a so-called house rabbit (similar to a house cat), was only strongly promoted starting with publications in the 1980s. Rabbits can be trained to use a litter box and taught to come when called, but they require exercise and can damage a house or injure themselves if it has not been suitably prepared, based on their innate need to chew. Accidental interactions between pet rabbits and wild rabbits, while seemingly harmless, are strongly discouraged due to the species' different temperaments as well as wild rabbits potentially carrying diseases.[2][3]

Unwanted pet rabbits sometimes end up in animal shelters, especially after the Easter season. In 2017, they were the United States' third most abandoned pet.[4] Some of them go on to be adopted and become family pets in various forms.[5] Because their wild counterparts have become invasive in Australia, pet rabbits are banned in the state of Queensland.[6] Domestic rabbits, bred for generations under human supervision to be docile, lack survival instincts, and perish in the wild if they are abandoned or escape from captivity.[2][3]

Domestic rabbits are used as laboratory animals and are raised as livestock for their meat, wool (in the case of the Angora breeds) and/or fur. Specific breeds are used in different industries; Rex rabbits, for example, are commonly raised for their fur, Californians are commonly raised for meat and New Zealand are commonly used in animal testing for their nearly identical appearance. Aside from the commercial or pet application, rabbits are commonly raised for exhibition at shows.

History[edit]

Phoenician sailors visiting the coast of Spain c. 12th century BC, mistaking the European rabbit for a species from their homeland (the rock hyrax Procavia capensis), gave it the name i-shepan-ham (land or island of hyraxes).[7]

The captivity of rabbits as a food source is recorded as early as the 1st century BC, when the Roman writer Pliny the Elder described the use of rabbit hutches, along with enclosures called leporaria [fr].[1] A controversial theory is that a corruption of the rabbit's name used by the Romans became the Latin name for the peninsula, Hispania.[8] In Rome, rabbits were raised in large walled colonies with walls extended underground.[9] According to Pliny, the consumption of unborn and newborn rabbits, called laurices, was considered a delicacy.[10]

Evidence for the domestic rabbit is rather late. In the Middle Ages, wild rabbits were often kept for the hunt. Monks in southern France were crossbreeding rabbits at least by the 12th century AD. Domestication was probably a slow process that took place from the Roman period (or earlier) until the 1500s.[11]

Depiction of rabbit hunting in Queen Mary Psalter (1340)
A medieval depiction of well-dressed ladies who are hunting rabbits in a warren, using cages, clubs and ferrets. Queen Mary's Psalter (1340)

In the 19th century, as animal fancy in general began to emerge, rabbit fanciers began to sponsor rabbit exhibitions and fairs in Western Europe and the United States. Breeds of various domesticated animals were created and modified for the added purpose of exhibition, a departure from the breeds that had been created solely for food, fur, or wool. The rabbit's emergence as a household pet began during the Victorian era.[12]

The keeping of the rabbit as a pet commencing from the 1800s coincides with the first observable skeletal differences between the wild and domestic populations, even though captive rabbits had been exploited for over 2,000 years.[1] Domestic rabbits have been popular in the United States since the late 19th century. What became known as the "Belgian Hare Boom" began with the importation of the first Belgian Hares from England in 1888 and, soon after, the founding of the American Belgian Hare Association, the first rabbit club in America. From 1898 to 1901, many thousands of Belgian Hares were imported to America.[13] Today, the Belgian Hare is one of the rarest breeds, with only 132 specimens found in the United States in a 2015 census.[14]

Titian, Madonna of the Rabbit (c. 1530)

The American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA) was founded in 1910 and is the national authority on rabbit raising and rabbit breeds having a uniform Standard of Perfection, registration and judging system. The domestic rabbit continues to be popular as a show animal and pet. Many thousand rabbit shows occur each year and are sanctioned in Canada and the United States by the ARBA. Today, the domesticated rabbit is the third most popular mammalian pet in Britain after dogs and cats.

Experimentation[edit]

Pasture-raised rabbits in a moveable enclosure at Polyface Farm

Rabbits have been and continue to be used in laboratory work such as production of antibodies for vaccines and research of human male reproductive system toxicology. In 1972, around 450,000 rabbits were used for experiments in the United States, decreasing to around 240,000 in 2006.[15] The Environmental Health Perspective, published by the National Institute of Health, states, "The rabbit [is] an extremely valuable model for studying the effects of chemicals or other stimuli on the male reproductive system."[16] According to the Humane Society of the United States, rabbits are also used extensively in the study of bronchial asthma, stroke prevention treatments, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, and cancer. Animal rights activists have opposed animal experimentation for non-medical purposes, such as the testing of cosmetic and cleaning products, which has resulted in decreased use of rabbits in these areas.[17]

The New Zealand White is one of the most commonly used breeds for research and testing.[18]

The use of rabbits for the Draize test, a method of testing cosmetics on animals,[19][20] has been cited as an example of cruelty in animal research by animal rights activists.[21][22] Albino rabbits are typically used in the Draize tests because they have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment makes the effects easier to visualize.[23]

Terminology[edit]

Male rabbits are called bucks; females are called does. An older term for an adult rabbit is coney, while rabbit once referred only to the young animals.[24] Another term for a young rabbit is bunny, though this term is often applied informally (especially by children and rabbit enthusiasts) to rabbits generally, especially domestic ones. More recently, the term kit or kitten has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A young hare is called a leveret; this term is sometimes informally applied to a young rabbit as well. A group of rabbits is known as a "colony" or a "nest".[25]

Biology[edit]

Genetics[edit]

Main article: Cuniculture § Genetics

The study of rabbit genetics is of interest to fanciers, the fiber and fur industry, medical researchers, and the meat industry. Among rabbit fanciers, the genetics of rabbit health and diversity are paramount. The fiber & fur industry focuses on the genetics of coat color and hair properties. In the biomedical research community and the pharmaceutical industry, rabbit genetics are important in model organism research, antibody production, and toxicity testing. The meat industry relies on genetics for disease resistance, feed conversion ratios, and reproduction potential in rabbits.

The rabbit genome has been sequenced and is publicly available.[26] The mitochondrial DNA has also been sequenced.[27] In 2011, parts of the rabbit genome were re-sequenced in greater depth in order to expose variation within the genome.[28]

  • Rabbit Coat Pattern & Color Genes
  • Gene = du Pattern: Dutch Gene = B Color: Black (on white)
    Gene = du
    Pattern: Dutch
    Gene = B
    Color: Black (on white)
  • Gene = e(j) Pattern: Harlequin
    Gene = e(j)
    Pattern: Harlequin
  • Gene = Enen Pattern: Broken Gene = D Color: Chocolate (on white)
    Gene = Enen
    Pattern: Broken
    Gene = D
    Color: Chocolate (on white)
  • Gene = si Silvering of the hair shaft
    Gene = si
    Silvering of the hair shaft

There are 11 color gene groups (or loci) in rabbits. A rabbit's coat has either two pigments (pheomelanin for yellow, and eumelanin for dark brown) or no pigment (for an albino rabbit). Clusters of color genes plus their modifiers control such aspects as coat patterns (e.g. Dutch or English markings), color hues and their intensity or dilution, and the location of color bands on the hair shaft (e.g., silvering).

Diet[edit]

As a refinement of the diet of the wild rabbit, the diet of the domestic rabbit is often a function of its purpose. Show rabbits are fed for vibrant health, strong musculoskeletal systems, and—like rabbits intended for the fur trade—optimal coat production and condition. Rabbits intended for the meat trade are fed for swift and efficient production of flesh, while rabbits in research settings have closely controlled diets for specific goals. Nutritional needs of the domestic rabbit may also be focused on developing a physique that allows for the safe delivery of larger litters of healthy kits. Optimizing costs and producing feces that meet local waste regulations may also be factors.[29] The diet of a pet rabbit, too, is geared toward its purpose—as a healthy and long-lived companion.[30]

Hay is an essential part of the diet of all rabbits and it is a major component of the commercial food pellets that are formulated for domestic rabbits and available in many areas. Pellets are typically fed to adult rabbits in limited quantities once or twice a day, to mimic their natural behavior and to prevent obesity. It is recommended only a teaspoon to an egg cup full of pellets is fed to adult rabbits each day. Most rabbit pellets are alfalfa-based for protein and fiber, with other grains completing the carbohydrate requirements. "Muesli" style rabbit foods are also available; these contain separate components—e.g., dried carrot, pea flakes and hay pellets as opposed to a uniform pellet. These are not recommended as rabbits will choose favored parts and leave the rest. Muesli style feeds are often lower in fiber than pelleted versions of rabbit food. Additionally, numerous studies have found they increase the risk of obesity and dental disease. Minerals and vitamins are added during production of rabbit pellets to meet the nutritional requirements of the domestic rabbit. Along with pellets, many commercial rabbit raisers also feed one or more types of loose hay, for its freshness and important cellulose components. Alfalfa in particular is recommended for the growth needs of young rabbits.[31] Alfalfa hay is not recommended for adult rabbits, as it is too rich in protein and too high in calcium.[32] Grass hays are best because they are lower in protein and calcium. Common sources of hay for rabbits include bluegrass, brome, fescue, marsh, orchard, timothy, oat and ryegrass. Offering a diversity of hay is important nutritionally. A diversity of hay also desensitizes rabbits to small changes in smell and texture, resulting in good, consistent eaters.[33]

Digestion[edit]

Main article: Cecotrope

Easily digestible food is processed in the gastrointestinal tract & expelled as regular feces. But in order to get nutrients out of hard to digest fiber, rabbits ferment fiber in the cecum (in the GI tract) and then expel the contents as cecotropes, which are reingested (cecotrophy). The cecotropes are then absorbed in the small intestine to utilize the nutrients.[34]

Reproduction[edit]

Further information: § Spaying and neutering
Rabbit kits suckling from their mother

Rabbits are prolific breeders, in part because rabbits reach breeding age quickly. To prevent unwanted offspring, rabbits may be spayed or neutered at sexual maturity. Sexual maturity is determined as the point at which the production rate of spermatozoa stops increasing, which ranges based on the size of the breed: 4–5 months for small breeds (e.g., Mini Rex, Netherland Dwarf), 4–6 months for medium-sized breeds (e.g., Rex, New Zealand), and 5–8 months for large breeds (e.g., Flemish Giant).[35][36] Bucks usually require more time to sexually mature than does.[37]

Like all mammals, rabbits produce milk for their young. Female rabbits have six to eight nipples and can produce milk for more than six weeks after birthing.[38] Rabbit milk is relatively high in fat, as a percentage by mass. While most herbivores produce approximately 5% milk fat, rabbits produce 12%. The excerpted table below compares milk characteristics among mammals.[39]

Composition of milk for various mammals
(% by mass)
Species Fat
%		 Protein
%		 Lactose
%		 Ash
%		 Total
solids
%
Gray Seal 53.2 11.2 2.6 0.7 67.7
Polar Bear 31.0 10.2 0.5 1.2 42.9
Rabbit 12.2 10.4 1.8 2.0 26.4
Bison 1.7 4.8 5.7 0.96 13.2
Donkey 1.2 1.7 6.9 0.45 10.2

Health[edit]

Main article: Rabbit health
Johann Daniel Meyer (1752)

Rabbit health is a well-studied area in veterinary medicine, owing to the long history of rabbit domestication and the use of rabbits as laboratory animals. In pet rabbits, disease is rare when raised in sanitary conditions and provided with adequate care. Rabbits have fragile bones, especially in their spines, and need support on the bottom when they are picked up. In domestic rabbits, a significant concern is that they will gnaw on almost anything, including electrical cords (possibly leading to electrocution), potentially poisonous plants, and material like carpet and fabric that may cause life-threatening intestinal blockages.[40][41][42]

Domestic practices that are associated with adverse health effects in rabbits include spaying females, declawing, and improper housing leading to sore hocks and stress. Domestic rabbits, like wild rabbits, are also susceptible to viral diseases such as myxomatosis, rabbit hemmorhagic disease, and West Nile virus, and vaccination is not required or possible for these diseases in all jurisdictions.

Breeds[edit]

Main article: List of rabbit breeds
Gemüsestilleben mit Häschen, by Johann Georg Seitz (1870)

As of 2017, there were at least 305 breeds of domestic rabbit in 70 countries around the world.[43] The American Rabbit Breeders Association currently recognizes 52 rabbit breeds[44] and the British Rabbit Council recognizes 106.[45] Selective breeding has produced rabbits ranging in size from dwarf to giant. Across the world, rabbits are raised as livestock (in cuniculture) for their meat, pelts, and wool, and also by fanciers and hobbyists as pets.

Rabbits have been selectively bred since ancient times to achieve certain desired characteristics.[46] Variations include size and body shape, coat type (including hair length and texture), coat color, ear carriage (erect or lop), and ear length.[47] As with any animal, domesticated rabbits' temperaments vary in such factors as energy level and novelty seeking.

Many genetic defects in the domestic rabbit (such as dental problems in the Holland Lop breed) are due to recessive genes.[48][49] Genetics are carefully tracked by fanciers who show rabbits, to breed out defects.[50]

As pets[edit]

A 9-month-old dwarf house rabbit visiting the outdoors with a harness and leash

Rabbits have been kept as pets in Western nations since the 19th century,[51] but because of the destructive history of feral rabbits in Australia, domestic rabbits are illegal as pets in Queensland.[6] Rabbits can bond with humans,[52] can learn to follow simple voice commands and to come when called,[53]: 166  and are curious and playful.

Rabbits, like many other pets, do not make good pets for small children because rabbits are fragile and easily injured by rough handling, can bite when hurt or frightened, and are easily frightened by loud noises and sudden motions.[54] With the right guidance, rabbits can be trained to live indoors perfectly.[55]

Rabbits are especially popular as pets in the United States during the Easter season, due to their association with the holiday. However, animal shelters that accept rabbits often complain that during the weeks and months following Easter, there is a rise in unwanted and neglected rabbits that were bought as Easter gifts, especially for children.[56] Similar problems arise in rural areas after county fairs and the like, in jurisdictions where rabbits are legal prizes in fairground games.

Thus, there are many humane societies, animal shelters, and rescue groups that have rabbits available for pet adoption. Fancy rabbit breeds are often purchased from pet stores, private breeders, and fanciers.

House rabbits[edit]

Rabbits may be kept inside as small house pets. Rabbits that live indoors are less exposed to the dangers of predators, parasites, diseases, adverse weather, and pesticides, which in turn increases their lifespan.[40] Cages are generally too small so it is recommended that instead of a cage, domestic rabbits free-roam.[57] If they must be kept in a cage, they should be let out regularly for needed exercise. All areas should be "rabbit-proofed" to reduce the risks associated with their intrinsic need to chew.[40][58] Rabbits are easily litter box trained.[59]

Rabbits are often compatible with others of their kind, or with birds or guinea pigs, but opinion differs regarding the dangers of housing different species together. For example, while rabbits can synthesize their own vitamin C, guinea pigs cannot, so the two species should not be fed the same diet. Also, most rabbits tend to be stronger than guinea pigs, so this may cause deliberate or inadvertent injury.[60] Some people consider rabbits a pocket pet even though they are rather large.

Two house rabbits in their litter box

Rabbits as house companions began appearing with frequency in the late 19th century.[61][62][63] The most notable documentation is from Beatrix Potter's published diaries and letters.[64] Potter allowed both rabbits to live at least part time in the house with her.[65] "Both were fond of the fire, and one used to lie inside the fender",[62] and one rabbit slept, "under the grate on the hot ashes when the fire had gone out."[62] The strongest push to keep rabbits as litter-trained spayed and neutered indoor pets came with the publication of Marinell Harriman's House Rabbit Handbook: How to Live with an Urban Rabbit in 1985.[65][66][67]

As the domestic descendants of wild prey animals, rabbits are alert, timid creatures that startle fairly easily, and many of their behaviors are triggered by the fight-or-flight response to perceived threats. According to the House Rabbit Society, the owner of a pet rabbit can use various behavioral approaches to gain the animal's trust and reduce aggression, though this can be a long and difficult process.[68]

In addition, there is evidence to suggest that young rabbits that occupy the periphery of the "litter huddle" obtain less milk from the mother and, as a result, have a lower weight. It has been suggested that this factor may contribute to behavioural differences in litter mates during adolescence.[69]

Bonding[edit]

When bonding two rabbits, the journey usually commences with carefully supervised meetings on neutral territory. This helps minimize territorial aggression and allows the rabbits to establish a hierarchy.[70] Over time, through these encounters, the rabbits will learn to tolerate with each other's presence, form a social bond, and engage in vital social behaviors such as grooming, playing, and snuggling.

A bonded rabbit pair often can be found snuggling with each other.

Once a successful bond is established, the rabbits can progress to sharing the same habitat, enabling them to coexist as companions in a safe and contented environment. However, not all bonding attempts result in success, and sometimes bonds may break due to various factors, including personality clashes or stress. In such cases, it is essential to carefully assess the situation and, if necessary, seek guidance from experienced rabbit caregivers or veterinarians to provide the best possible care for the rabbits involved.[71]

During bonding, as rabbits become more comfortable with each other's presence, they often engage in mutual grooming sessions.

On the flip side, when rabbit bonds break, it can have detrimental effects on their physical and emotional well-being. Rabbits are highly social animals, and sudden separation from a bonded partner can cause stress and anxiety. This stress can lead to health issues, such as gastrointestinal problems, reduced appetite, and even a weakened immune system. Additionally, the sudden absence of a grooming partner can result in neglected fur, making the rabbit more susceptible to matting and skin issues.[72]

Care[edit]

Not all veterinarians will treat rabbits, and pet owners may have to seek out an exotic animal veterinarian for their rabbit's care. Rabbits need annual checkups at the veterinarian because they may hide signs of illness or disease. They should be given things to chew on, the owner should check their teeth every month and they should have their nails trimmed every 6–8 weeks.[73] They should be groomed every week; however, during their molts they should be groomed every day.[74]

Baby rabbits under eight weeks old should be watched for enteritis along with gut stasis and bloat.[75]

Pet rabbits can often exhibit behaviour problems, including aggression towards humans and conspecifics, particularly with poor husbandry. Rabbit owners can seek behaviour help through their vets and rabbit behaviourists.

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

A Holland Lop hiding in a cardboard box. As a prey species, domestic rabbits often make use of hiding spaces to manage threats and relieve stress.[76]

Some advantages of keeping rabbits as pets is that they can be friendly, sociable and playful. They may or may not react favorably to handling and petting, depending on their personality and how they were raised.[42] There are many different sizes and characteristics available, owing to a long history of breeding. Rabbits can be friendly to each other, especially when introduced while young,[42] and are often compatible with other pets given time and space.[77] Rabbits are herbivores and their diet is relatively simple.[78] Compared to other small animals kept as pets, rabbits are physically robust creatures with strong hind legs that enable them to run fast, and they have powerful teeth. Rabbits breed rapidly and so it is often easy, and affordable, to find one to buy or adopt; however, since they are a social species, it is better to keep at least 2 rabbits.[79]

A disadvantage of keeping rabbits as pets is that they may chew things in the house. Rabbits chew as a natural behavior to maintain their dental health and must be provided with a healthy way to do so. Rabbits can potentially be aggressive and territorial, and unneutered male rabbits may spray their territory with a strong-smelling urine. Unspayed female urine is also pungent, and a litter box may smell and requires training to use. Additionally, fearful rabbits can bite and scratch, and may do so to communicate displeasure.[42] Rabbits should never be picked up by the ears or the "scruff" on the back of their neck, as their skeletons are light and fragile in comparison to their bodies, and are susceptible to trauma from falling, twisting and kicking. They have to be picked up and handled properly to avoid injury to the rabbit or the owner.[80]

Rabbits have needs that differ from other common household pets, which can lead to poor quality of life for the animal if their owners are unaware of these needs and often results in rabbits being returned to animal shelters.[81] Inappropriate treatment of a rabbit can include inadequate diet, housing, or socialisation.[78] A lack of knowledge may also lead to improper treatment and health care for rabbits.[82] Rabbits also have a body language that is more subtle than that of common domestic pets, such as cats and dogs,[83] and compared to these species are prey animals rather than predators, which poses different challenges to a potential owner.[84]

As livestock[edit]

See also: Cuniculture

Rabbits have been kept as livestock since ancient times for their meat, wool, and fur. In modern times, rabbits are also utilized in scientific research as laboratory animals.

Meat rabbits[edit]

Meat-breed rabbits were a supplementary food source during the Great Depression

Breeds such as the New Zealand and Californian are frequently utilized for meat in commercial rabbitries. These breeds have efficient metabolisms and grow quickly; they are ready for slaughter by approximately 14 to 16 weeks of age. The main consumer of rabbit meat in the world was China, as of 2017.[85]

Rabbit fryers are rabbits that are between 70 and 90 days of age, and weighing between 3–5 lb (1.4–2.3 kg) live weight. Rabbit roasters are rabbits from 90 days to 6 months of age weighing between 5–8 lb (2.3–3.6 kg) live weight. Rabbit stewers are rabbits from 6 months on weighing over 8 lb (3.6 kg).

Any type of rabbit can be slaughtered for meat, but those exhibiting the "commercial" body type are most commonly raised for meat purposes. Dark fryers (any other color but albino whites) are sometimes lower in price than albino fryers because of the slightly darker tinge of the fryer (purely pink carcasses are preferred by consumers) and because the dark hairs are easier to see than if there are residual white hairs on the carcass. There is no difference in skinability.

Wool rabbits[edit]

Rabbits such as the Angora, American Fuzzy Lop, and Jersey Wooly produce wool. However, since the American Fuzzy Lop and Jersey Wooly are both dwarf breeds, only the much larger Angora breeds such as the English Angora, Satin Angora, Giant Angora, and French Angoras are used for commercial wool production. Their long fur is sheared, combed, or plucked (gently pulling loose hairs from the body during molting) and then spun into yarn used to make a variety of products. Angora sweaters can be purchased in many clothing stores and is generally mixed with other types of wool due to the poor durability of angora fibers on their own.[86]

Peaux de Lapin ("Rabbit skins") by Edme Bouchardon (1737)

Fur rabbits[edit]

Rabbit breeds that were developed for their fur qualities include the Rex with its plush texture, the Satin with its lustrous color, and the Chinchilla for its exotic pattern. White rabbit fur may be dyed in an array of colors that are not produced naturally. Rabbits in the fur industry are fed a diet focused for robust coat production and pelts are harvested after the rabbit reaches prime condition, which takes longer than in the meat industry. Rabbit fur is used in local and commercial textile industries throughout the world.[87][88]

Housing[edit]

Rabbits can live outdoors in properly constructed, sheltered hutches, which provide protection from the elements in winter and keep rabbits cool in summer heat. To protect from predators, rabbit hutches are usually situated in a fenced yard, shed, barn, or other enclosed structure, which may also contain a larger pen for exercise.[89] Rabbits in such an environment can alternatively be allowed to roam the secured area freely, and simply be provided with an adapted doghouse for shelter. A more elaborate setup is an artificial warren. Inside housing is discussed in House rabbits.

Show jumping[edit]

Main article: Rabbit show jumping

Rabbit show jumping, a form of animal sport between rabbits, began in the 1970s and has since become popular in Europe, particularly Sweden and the United Kingdom. When rabbit jumping was first starting out, the rules of competition were the same as horse jumping rules. However, rules were later changed to reflect a rabbit's abilities. The first national championship for rabbit show jumping was held in Stockholm, Sweden in 1987.[90] Any rabbit, regardless of breed, may participate in this kind of competition, as it is based on athletic skill.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

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